Character of a Quantity¶
A quantity's character has two orthogonal axes: its tensor order (scalar, vector, or tensor) and its numeric field (real or complex). The two are independent, so every combination is possible: a velocity is a real vector, a voltage phasor a complex scalar, and a complex field amplitude in electromagnetics a complex vector. This chapter covers both axes and how to declare them.
Scalars, vectors, and tensors¶
ISO 80000-2
Scalars, vectors and tensors are mathematical objects that can be used to denote certain physical quantities and their values. They are as such independent of the particular choice of a coordinate system, whereas each scalar component of a vector or a tensor and each component vector and component tensor depend on that choice.
Such distinction is important because each quantity character represents different properties and allows different operations to be done on its quantities.
For example, imagine a physical units library that allows the creation of a \(speed\) quantity from both \(length / time\) and \(length * time\). It wouldn't be too safe to use such a product, right?
Now we have to realize that both of the above operations (multiplication and division) are not even mathematically defined for linear algebra types such as vectors or tensors. On the other hand, two vectors can be passed as arguments to dot and cross-product operations. The result of the first one is a scalar. The second one results in a vector that is perpendicular to both vectors passed as arguments. Again, it wouldn't be safe to allow replacing those two operations with each other or expect the same results from both cases. This simply can't work.
ISQ defines quantities of all characters¶
While defining quantities, ISO 80000 explicitly mentions when a specific quantity has a vector or tensor character. Here are some examples:
| Quantity | Character | Quantity Equation |
|---|---|---|
| \(duration\) | scalar | {base quantity} |
| \(mass\) | scalar | {base quantity} |
| \(length\) | scalar | {base quantity} |
| \(path\; length\) | scalar | {base quantity} |
| \(radius\) | scalar | {base quantity} |
| \(position\; vector\) | vector | {base quantity} |
| \(velocity\) | vector | \(position\; vector / duration\) |
| \(acceleration\) | vector | \(velocity / duration\) |
| \(force\) | vector | \(mass * acceleration\) |
| \(power\) | scalar | \(force \cdot velocity\) |
| \(moment\; of\; force\) | vector | \(position\; vector \times force\) |
| \(torque\) | scalar | \(moment\; of\; force \cdot \{unit\; vector\}\) |
| \(surface\; tension\) | scalar | \(\lvert force \rvert / length\) |
| \(angular\; displacement\) | scalar | \(path\; length / radius\) |
| \(angular\; velocity\) | vector | \(angular\; displacement / duration * \{unit\; vector\}\) |
| \(momentum\) | vector | \(mass * velocity\) |
| \(angular\; momentum\) | vector | \(position\; vector \times momentum\) |
| \(moment\; of\; inertia\) | tensor | \(angular\; momentum \otimes angular\; velocity\) |
In the above equations:
- \(a * b\) - regular multiplication where one of the arguments has to be scalar
- \(a / b\) - regular division where the divisor has to be scalar
- \(a \cdot b\) - dot product of two vectors
- \(a \times b\) - cross product of two vectors
- \(\lvert a \rvert\) - magnitude of a vector
- \(\{unit\; vector\}\) - a special vector with the magnitude of \(1\)
- \(a \otimes b\) - tensor product of two vectors or tensors
Note
As of now, all of the C++ physical units libraries on the market besides mp-units do not support the operations mentioned above. They expose only multiplication and division operators, which do not work for linear algebra-based representation types. If a user of those libraries would like to create the quantities provided in the above table properly, this would result in a compile-time error stating that multiplication and division of two linear algebra vectors is impossible.
Real and complex quantities¶
Order is only half of the character. The other axis is the field: whether a quantity's values are real or complex. Most quantities are real. Some are inherently complex, carrying a magnitude and a phase in a single value rather than two separate real numbers:
| Quantity | Character | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| \(voltage\) | real scalar | an instantaneous value |
| \(voltage\; phasor\) | complex scalar | magnitude and phase of a sinusoid |
| \(impedance\) | complex scalar | \(resistance + j\,reactance\) |
| \(admittance\) | complex scalar | \(1 / impedance\) |
Like the order, the field is fixed by what a quantity means, before any C++ type is chosen.
Operations such as real(), imag(), and modulus() are meaningful only on a complex
quantity, and the library exposes them exactly where the field says complex. The field is
then matched to the representation exactly: a complex quantity requires a complex representation
(such as std::complex), and a real quantity a real one, with no implicit lift between them.
The two axes are independent. Besides the familiar real scalars and real vectors, a quantity can be a complex scalar (a voltage phasor), or even a complex vector or tensor (a complex field amplitude or a complex permittivity in electromagnetics).
Characters don't apply to dimensions and units¶
ISO 80000 explicitly states that dimensions are orthogonal to quantity characters:
ISO 80000-1:2009
In deriving the dimension of a quantity, no account is taken of its scalar, vector, or tensor character.
Also, it explicitly states that:
ISO 80000-2
All units are scalars.
Defining the character of a quantity¶
A character is one value from each axis. The two axes are plain enumerations, and
quantity_character pairs them:
enum class quantity_tensor_order : std::int8_t { scalar, vector, tensor }; // rank-ordered: a lower order fills a higher
enum class quantity_field : std::int8_t { real, complex }; // matched exactly: never one for the other
// a character is exactly one of each
struct quantity_character {
quantity_tensor_order order = quantity_tensor_order::scalar;
quantity_field field = quantity_field::real;
};
To set the character explicitly, append a quantity_tensor_order value (for a vector or
tensor) or a quantity_field value (for a complex quantity) to the quantity_spec describing
the quantity type:
inline constexpr struct displacement : quantity_spec<length, quantity_tensor_order::vector> {} displacement;
inline constexpr struct position_vector : quantity_spec<displacement> {} position_vector;
inline constexpr struct moment_of_inertia
: quantity_spec<angular_momentum / angular_velocity, quantity_tensor_order::tensor> {} moment_of_inertia;
inline constexpr struct displacement : quantity_spec<displacement, length, quantity_tensor_order::vector> {} displacement;
inline constexpr struct position_vector : quantity_spec<position_vector, displacement> {} position_vector;
inline constexpr struct moment_of_inertia
: quantity_spec<moment_of_inertia, angular_momentum / angular_velocity, quantity_tensor_order::tensor> {} moment_of_inertia;
With the above, all the quantities derived from these will have a correct character determined according to the kind of operations included in the quantity equation defining a derived quantity.
For example, velocity in the below definition will be defined as a vector quantity.
No explicit character override is needed:
A complex quantity is declared the same way, with a quantity_field value. For example, a
voltage phasor shares everything with voltage but is complex rather than real:
Representation types for vector and tensor quantities¶
The quantity class template's second parameter is constrained with
RepresentationOf, which verifies that the representation
type satisfies the requirements for the quantity's character. See
Representation Types for the full details on requirements and
how to use custom types.
Note
The current version of the C++ Standard Library does not provide any types that could be used as
a representation type for vector and tensor quantities. mp-units ships two built-in types:
cartesian_vector<T, N> for N-dimensional Cartesian vectors and
cartesian_tensor<T, N> for second-order N×N Cartesian tensors, where the
compile-time dimension N is 2 or 3 (default 3). Any third-party linear
algebra library types can also be used via the customization points described in
Representation Types.
Both types live in the mp_units::utility namespace. The snippets below assume a
using namespace mp_units::utility; (or an mp_units::utility:: qualification).
For example, using the built-in cartesian_vector:
#include <mp-units/cartesian_vector.h>
Quantity auto q = cartesian_vector{1., 2., 3.} * isq::velocity[m / s];
Note
The following does not work:
Quantity auto q1 = cartesian_vector{1., 2., 3.} * m / s;
Quantity auto q2 = isq::velocity(cartesian_vector{1., 2., 3.} * m / s);
quantity<isq::velocity[m/s]> q3{cartesian_vector{1., 2., 3.} * m / s};
In all the cases above, the SI unit m / s has an associated scalar quantity of isq::length / isq::duration.
cartesian_vector is not a correct representation type for a scalar quantity so the construction fails.
A tensor quantity works the same way through the built-in cartesian_tensor, an
N×N second-order Cartesian tensor:
#include <mp-units/cartesian_tensor.h>
Quantity auto stress = cartesian_tensor{1., 0., 0., 0., 1., 0., 0., 0., 1.} * isq::stress[Pa];
cartesian_tensor satisfies the tensor character and provides the ISO 80000-2 second-order
operations (tensor_product, inner_product, scalar_product). It is kept out of the vector
character on purpose, so it cannot be used where a vector representation is expected.
ISO 80000-2
A vector is a tensor of the first order and a scalar is a tensor of order zero.
By that same ordering, a lower-order representation fills a higher-order slot, so the
simpler types are still accepted for a tensor quantity: a fundamental type models a scalar
tensor measure (for example a von Mises stress), and a cartesian_vector is also a valid
tensor representation. See Representation Types for the
full rules.